Antimicrobials and Drug Resistance

Multidrug resistant (MDR) are those microbes which are resistant to multiple antimicrobials .Resistant microorganisms (compiling fungi, bacteria, parasites and viruses) have the ability to withstand  effects of antimicrobial drugs.  Irrational use of antimicrobial drugs rapidify the origin of drug-resistant strains. Poor infection control practices, inappropriate food-handling and inadequate sanitary conditions leads to further spread of antimicrobial resistance. Diagnosis of antimicrobial drug resistance is evaluated by lab tests that makes it difficult for the the isolated microbes to grow and survive in the presence of the drug. Antimicrobial chemotherapy refers to the use of antimicrobial medicines to treat infection. Microbial immunology refers to the interrelationship among infectious agents and their hosts, with microbial and viral pathogenesis and the immunological host response to infections.

An  antimicrobial agents are those that kills or inhibits the growth of microorganism, similarly antibacterials are effective against bacteria. According to different groups of microorganism the action of antimicrobial medicine can be seen. Antimicrobial drugs by its mechanism of action help in treatment as well as prevention from bacterial infection. Antibiotic prophylaxis refers to the prevention of infection complications using antimicrobial therapy  . Antibacterials are used to treat bacterial infections. The hazards to humans and other animals from antibacterials is generally less if compared. However, continuous use of certain antibacterials  gives side effects like it decrease the number of gut flora, which may have a bad impact on health etc.

Antiviral drugs are the  medication used particularly for treating viral infections.   .Mostly antiviral drug design is to identify targets like  viral proteins, or  its parts, that can be disabled. These "targets" should be as unlike parts of proteins in humans as possible, to reduce the likelihood of various possible side effects. The targets should also be common among different species of virus in the same family or across many strains of a virus, so a single drug  can have broad effectiveness through its mechanism of action. Almost all anti-microbials, including anti-virals, are subject to drug resistance as these pathogenic organism mutate as time travel, resulting less susceptible to the treatment therefore  designing safe and effective antiviral drugs is difficult, because viruses aiways use the host's cells to replicate and increase their count.

Antifungal and antiparasitic are class of medication for pharmaceutical fungicide or fungistatic used to treat and prevent mycoses  and treatment of parasitic diseases, such as those caused by helminths etc ,respectively. Invasive fungal infections causes  significant health problem in immune compromised patients.  So as the clinical manifestations vary and can range from colonization in allergic broncho pulmonary disease to active infection in local aetiologic agents. Therefore drug dose monitoring is necessary to ensure the therapeutic levels achieved for optimal clinical efficacy. Various Immunomodulatory properties have been identified in various antiparasitic agents and their potential therapeutic applications have been recognized. Antiparasitic resistance is the genetic ability of parasites to survive the effects of an antiparasitic drug to which they were previously susceptible. Practical and effective strategies to combat antiparasitic resistance are somewhat  critical.

Selective toxicity  means the injuring of one kind of living matter without harming some other kind ,even though the two are in intimate contact. Toxicosis potential is usually determined more by the multitude of related factors than by actual toxicity of the toxicant. Mechanisms of staphylococcal  enterotoxin-induced emesis. Tetanospasmin  is one of the most powerful neurotoxins known. The tetanospasmin toxin is a zinc-dependent metalloproteinase others like botulinum toxin has high specificity and irreversible effects. Host cell with selective toxicity can be seen in E.coli, HIV and Influenza toxins etc. There are topical antibiotics  to deal with topical antimicrobial toxicity which are directly applied to cultured human fibroblasts  which quantitatively assess their cytotoxicity.

Antimicrobial agents has been used in veterinary medicine and animal husbandry veterinary medicine which has resulted in healthier and more productive farm animals,  which ensures  the health and welfare of both animals and humans. There are several  benefits of food processing  which include toxin removal, preservation, easing marketing and distribution tasks, and increasing food consistency and makes many kinds of foods safe to eat by de-activating spoilage and pathogenic micro-organisms shelf life of food product and ensure food saftey. As part of process control activities in the food manufacturing plant, antimicrobial agents have been successfully applied, both in the product formulation stage as direct food additives designed to reduce or eradicate pathogens  and benificial in antimicrobial proteins. Apart from this it has various uses in plant agriculture.

Ebola, is a viral hemorrhagic fever of other primates and mostly humans. The Zika virus belongs to family  Flaviviridae and  genus Flavivirus, and is thus related to  many disease like dengue, yellow fever etc in one or other way . Zika is spread by the female  Aedes aegypti mosquito, which is active mostly in the daytime The potential societal risk of Zika can be  restricted by delimiting the distribution of the mosquito species that transmit it. The highly pathogenic influenza A virus subtype H5N1 is an emerging avian influenza virus that is causing global concern as a potential pandemic threat. Tuberculosis  is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB). Therefore all the bacteria .and viruses Control of outbreaks requires coordinated medical services, alongside a certain level of community engagement.

Industrial antimicrobial agents are  the chemicals used to prevent the adverse consequences of microbiological activity in various processes and products formation. They are mainly targeted against mold,  bacteria, and fungi. There is wide range of Applications antimicrobial agents in industry. Bioremediation is a “treatment that uses naturally occurring organisms to break down intoxicated  substances into less toxic or non toxic substances .Likewise, in industrial fermentation  there is intentional use of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi to make products useful to humans. Fermented products though have applications as food but it is also used in general industry .Along with this there are other application of microbes-powerful cleaners, agricultural improvers.

Microbial Genomics  provide approaches to understand microbial evolution, population genomics, outbraks and epidemiological investigations, , metagenomic and whole transcriptome studies, and bioinformatic analysis,Genes and Genomes,Transcription and translational regulations  etc. A gene mutation is a permanent alteration in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene, such that this sequence is unique  in different people. Pharmacogenomics (PGx) aims to optimize drug efficacy and minimize toxicity on the basis of  improved understanding of genomic variants influence drug response. Clinical Genomics gives innovative products for colorectal cancer diagnosis. Regulation of gene expression includes a wide range of mechanisms. Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct manipulation of an organism's genome using biotechnology futher host-microbe interactions in disease stategives the idea of pathogenomics.

Biomarkers are physical, functional or biochemical indicators of physiological or disease processes.( There are various types of biomarkers .) These key indicators can provide vital information in determining disease prognosis, in predicting of response to therapies, adverse events and drug interactions, and in establishing baseline risk. The incorporation of biomarker studies into early drug trials is complex. Thus the decision to proceed with studies of biomarkers should be based on balancing the strength of science, assay robustness, feasibility, and resources with the burden of proper sample collection on the patient and potential impact of the results on drug development.

The use of antimicrobials in animals are closely parallels to the discovery and usage in humans.  Like  Sulfonamide was the first antimicrobial to be introduced to food animal medicine. Antibiotics are  given to food animals for growth promotion and prophylactic medication. In  other hand ,epidemiology of antimicrobial-resistant microorganisms at the human–animal interface involves complex and largely unpredictable systems that include transmission routes of resistant bacteria as well as resistance genes and the impact of antimicrobial selective pressures in several reservoir. There is an environmental impact of  Antibiotics and their metabolites (degradation products) through antibiotic-laden manure or direct deposition of manure by grazing animals.  .  Antibiotics that reach the environment ,only that proportion will remain biologically active.   Low subtherapeutic concentrations of antibiotics that accumulate over time may have profound effects on some ecosystems

Antimicrobial stewardship  deals with well organised program that promotes the judicious use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics) , reduces microbial resistance, improves patient outcomes and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms. Antimicrobial Stewardship influences to do safe and appropriate use of antimicrobials i.e  rationalise use of Antibiotic. Basically it emphasis more on Safety and Quality. It has research priorities like a clear research motive highlighting the most important current knowledge gaps and new data to improve future containment initiatives.

Drug design can be defined as  the approach of finding drugs by design, based on their biological targets and the prediction of small molecules binding to it (pharmacophore, docking, QSAR) Antimicrobial resistance makes it harder to eliminate infections from the body as existing drugs become less effective. Metabolic engineering is the practice of optimizing genetic and regulatory processes within cells to increase the cells' production of a certain substance. Genetic engineering techniques are used to modify the network in order to relieve the constraints. Pharmaceutical formulation is a medicinal product which is formed by combination of some active drugs in different chemical substances, where the pharmaceutical drug undergo the drug development process .The global vaccine market has been established as one of the fastest growing segments of the medical and various healthcare industry.The global vaccine market is broadly analyzed on the basis of product types and antigens.

Public health can be summoned as "the science and art of preventing disease, promoting health and prolonging life through organized efforts in various manners and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals. Here Morbidity refers to the unhealthy state of an individual, while mortality refers to the state of being mortal. Both concepts can be applied across a population or at the individual level. Where an increased in the healthcare cost is seen as the cost of drug development decreases the economic incentive to develop drugs with lower profit potentials, even those that could substantially benefit particular groups) or public health in general (eg, vaccines, antibiotics).  Thus Antimicrobials are important in Human Medicine. But there is an increasing prevalence of antimicrobial resistance and that this resistance has clinical implications, therefore a need for mitigation efforts. Including awareness on the intake of food and drugs containing antimicrobial agents.